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When you mail a letter, you have the option of choosing a delivery priority, such as overnight delivery or special delivery. Similarly, you can assign notifications a priority level. The level is usually just an integer value, chosen from some range. For example, priorities might be in the range (1..10), with 1 the highest priority and 10 the lowest. As long as the delivery system can keep up with the publisher in sending notifications, priorities have no effect. If notifications can t be delivered fast enough, or if the recipient goes offline, the notifications will have to be queued, and only then will the prioritization order become significant. When scanning the queue for the next notification to send, the delivery service must select the highest-priority item. If there are many with the same priority, a scheme must be supplied to choose which one goes first. FIFO order is generally the norm. Priorities have been used in embedded systems to support soft and hard real-time delivery.31 In many situations, priorities are used to select which type of notification to send. For example, consider a system that has the capability to send out the following types of notifications: textual news headlines, audio news, and video webcasts. Each type essentially has its own information space, but you can use priorities to decide which type should be sacrificed if there are insufficient transmission resources to handle them all at peak times. When notifications are given priorities, the system designer s intention is to change the delivery order. If causal order is important in a system and it often is priority QoS attributes shouldn t be set.

Scripts for cold backups are fairly simple. Because you re doing a backup while the database is shut down, the backup process boils down to copying all the necessary files using the operating system copy utilities. Listing 15-8 shows a sample cold backup script. Listing 15-8. A User-Managed Cold Backup Script #!/bin/ksh ORACLE_SID=$1 export ORACLE_SID export ORAENV_ASK=NO BACKUP_DIR=/test01/app/oracle . oraenv sqlplus -s system/remorse1 << EOF SET HEAD OFF FEED OFF ECHO OFF TRIMSPOOL ON LINESIZE 200 SPOOL /u01/app/oracle/dba/cold_backup.ksh SELECT 'cp ' ||file_name|| ' ${BACKUP_DIR}' from sys.dba_data_files; SELECT 'cp ' ||name || ' ${BACKUP_DIR}' from V$controlfile; SELECT 'cp ' ||member|| ' ${BACKUP_DIR}' from V$logfile; SPOOL OFF; EXIT; EOF When you run the preceding commands, the output will be cold_backup.ksh, which you can then make into an executable script and schedule for regular execution.

There s a world of difference between making closed backups and open (or hot) backups Open backups imply that users are changing data while you re backing up files, and this leads to the use of more complex mechanisms on behalf of the Oracle server to perform the backups You need to back up all the datafiles, control files, and archived redo logs for a complete online database backup You use the normal operating system copy commands to achieve this, but because the database is actually running, you need to add some other commands to make the backups valid and consistent To understand this, it s necessary to understand what happens within the database during an online backup When you first prepare the tablespace for the backup by issuing the BEGIN BACKUP command, Oracle notes the SCNs in the datafile headers and freezes them.

In other words, the datafile header checkpoint SCNs will remain constant at their old values until the backup is completed and the command END BACKUP is issued Oracle will continue writing all the changes to the datafiles and to the redo log files, but the redo log files get filled up pretty fast in most cases, because Oracle will be writing the entire data block instead of just the changes made by individual transactions, as is done during normal operation As users are modifying the data during the online backup, checkpoints will occur as normal, and data blocks will keep being written to disk as usual Once the backup is completed for the entire tablespace, Oracle will advance the checkpoint SCN for each file to the latest actual SCN value.

Timing constraints are used to indicate the timing window within which a notification must be delivered. If delivery can t be completed within this time, the notification is considered undeliverable and discarded. You can define the window in relative or absolute terms. In relative terms, the window indicates a length of time within which delivery must occur, such as 10 seconds. In absolute terms, the window can indicate both a starting and ending time. The starting time indicates the earliest delivery time allowed. Since notifications are normally delivered as quickly as possible, start times are rarely used. The end time specifies when the delivery should be completed by, such as 13:21:54.9.

The crucial idea in the hot backup process is that should a crash of the database occur before the end of the backup, recovery can be performed based on the checkpoint that was noted when the tablespace was first put in backup mode The SCN that is frozen in the file headers is placed there right after a checkpoint, which flushes all the modified records in the buffer to the datafiles There is a considerable amount of redo log activity during hot backups, mostly to handle what is known as the fractured block problem During the online backup of a particular Oracle block, the block could be in the process of being written to Consequently, a backed-up copy could conceivably end up with inconsistent data, with part of the data from before the change was made and the rest from after the change.